Perched majestically atop a 357-foot sandstone mesa, the Acoma Pueblo, more commonly known today as Sky City, stands as a profound testament to enduring human history and resilience. Believed to be the oldest continuously inhabited city in the present United States, this remarkable Puebloan settlement dates back between 1100 and 1250 A.D.
The name “Acoma” itself means “People of the White Rock” in the Keresan dialect, a fitting description for the ancestral home that covers some 70 acres and encompasses several surrounding villages, including Acomita, McCartys, Anzac, and Sky Line. The strategic location of the Acoma Pueblo was chosen for its formidable defensive advantages against ancient raiders. Its sheer mesa faces made access incredibly difficult, with the only path for centuries being a perilous, hand-cut staircase carved directly into the sandstone.
Life Before European Contact: Resilience and Trade
For hundreds of years before the arrival of Europeans, the Acoma people thrived, cultivating the fertile valley below the pueblo. They developed sophisticated irrigation canals near the Rio San Jose River to sustain their agricultural practices. Beyond subsistence farming, the Acoma were active participants in a vast trading network, exchanging goods with neighboring pueblos and engaging in long-distance commerce with powerful civilizations like the Aztec and Mayan peoples. This intricate web of trade and agriculture fostered a vibrant and self-sufficient community atop their unyielding rock fortress.
The Arrival of the Spanish and Initial Encounters
The formidable nature of the Acoma Pueblo was first documented by Europeans in 1540 when Francisco Vasquez de Coronado encountered it. He famously described it as “one of the strongest ever seen, because the city was built on a high rock. The ascent was so difficult that we repented climbing to the top.” Despite its inaccessibility, Acoma proved to be one of the most resistant pueblos to Spanish influence and eventual rule.
Early Spanish accounts often depicted the Acoma people as friendly, frequently meeting expedition parties at the base of the mesa to offer greetings and assistance. However, as Spanish presence became increasingly persistent and their demands grew, the Acoma’s disposition shifted, leading to inevitable retaliation against the encroaching colonial power.
The Acoma Massacre of 1599: A Brutal Turning Point
A pivotal and tragic chapter in Acoma’s history unfolded in December 1598. Governor Juan de Onate, under direct orders from the King of Spain, had initiated a forceful invasion of New Mexico, establishing headquarters at the Ohkay Owingeh Pueblo and using it as a base for raids on Native American communities. A party of Spanish soldiers, seeking provisions, arrived at Acoma Pueblo. Initially welcomed, the soldiers soon turned aggressive, demanding vital grain from the Acoma storehouses—grain the tribe desperately needed to survive the harsh winter months. This egregious demand provoked a furious response; the Acoma people attacked, killing 13 Spanish soldiers, including Juan de Zaldivar, Onate’s nephew and commander.
Onate, enraged by the loss and determined to assert Spanish dominance, resolved to make a devastating example of Acoma. On January 21, 1599, he dispatched 70 of his most capable men, led by Vicente de Zaldivar, to attack the pueblo. The Acoma defenders bravely fanned out along the mesa’s edge, unleashing a barrage of rocks and arrows. Over three harrowing days, the Spanish troops fought their way to the summit. During the brutal engagement, the Spaniards managed to transport a small cannon up the mesa’s back, turning the tide with devastating effect as they fired into the village. What began as a battle quickly descended into a massacre, leaving an estimated 800 Acoma people dead and their ancient pueblo in ruins.
Aftermath and Enduring Spirit
The atrocities continued in the aftermath. The surviving Acoma people were marched to the Santo Domingo Pueblo (now Kewa Pueblo). All males over the age of 12 were condemned to 20 years of servitude. In a barbaric act intended to terrorize and subdue, the few dozen Acoma men of fighting age who remained alive were sentenced to have one foot cut off. Children under 12 were forcibly separated from their parents and given to Spanish missionaries for “re-education,” while most women and other children were sold into slavery. Though Onate was later tried and convicted of cruelty to both Indians and colonists, banished from New Mexico, and eventually cleared of all charges on appeal, the scars of his actions ran deep.
From an approximate population of 2,000, the Acoma Pueblo was reduced to roughly 250 survivors. Yet, the indomitable spirit of the Acoma people prevailed. Many escaped their captivity and gradually returned to their ancestral home, beginning the arduous process of rebuilding. Since that time, the Acoma Pueblo has been continuously inhabited and has never again fallen to an invader, a powerful testament to their unwavering resilience.
The San Estevan del Rey Mission: A Complex Legacy
Decades after the massacre, in 1629, the Spanish embarked on constructing the San Estevan del Rey Mission at Acoma. Presented as a “gesture of peace” and an effort to Christianize the indigenous population, the mission complex included a church, convent, and cemetery. However, Acoma’s oral traditions recount a starkly different narrative: that the people were forced by Friar Juan Ramirez to undertake the arduous construction. All building materials, including an estimated 20,000 tons of earth and stone, were hand-carried or laboriously hauled up the steep mesa slopes. The church’s massive 30-foot beams were transported over 30 miles from Mount Taylor and Kaweshtima, a monumental feat. The church was finally completed in 1640.
Architecturally impressive, the mission features two square bell towers flanking its main façade, which once housed bells brought from Mexico in the 1800s. A one-story convento, which served as living quarters, workrooms, and storage for the resident friars, ran along the north side of the church. The enormous church remains standing today, a significant example of early colonial architecture and a tangible, if complex, symbol of the intertwining of cultures.
Acoma’s Role in the Pueblo Revolt
Throughout the 17th century, tensions between the Spanish and the native peoples across the Southwest remained acutely high, largely fueled by religious disagreements and widespread abuses of power by both religious and political authorities. These grievances culminated in the monumental Pueblo Revolt of August 10, 1680. An alliance of some 17,000 Puebloans, including 6,000 warriors, rose in a synchronized act of vengeance against approximately 2,500-3,000 colonists. The tribes attacked mission churches, slaughtering 22 of 33 friars and demolishing many ecclesiastical structures. Isolated farms and haciendas were raided, and entire families were killed. The Acoma people actively participated in this historic revolt, killing the Spanish friars residing at the mesa at the time. Notably, the San Estevan del Rey Mission church was one of the few Spanish missions that survived the revolt intact, spared from destruction by the Acoma.
The Pueblo Revolt successfully drove the Spanish out of New Mexico for twelve years. However, the Puebloans were ultimately forced to submit once again to Spanish rule under Diego de Vargas in 1692. The Acoma joined another uprising in 1696 but were subdued again by 1699, marking the final major resistance against Spanish re-conquest.
Acoma Today: Preserving Heritage and Embracing the Future
Today, the San Estevan del Rey Mission church stands as a profound historical artifact, housing the most extensive inventory of early 17th-century building materials found in any structure in New Mexico. It boasts a rich collection of Spanish colonial ecclesiastic art, an original hand-hewn circular staircase, and exquisitely hand-carved rails and paintings, offering a tangible connection to its storied past. Both the Mission and the Acoma Pueblo itself have been rightfully proclaimed National Historic Landmarks.
Alongside the Hopi town of Oraibi, Arizona, the Acoma Pueblo proudly holds its status as the oldest continuously inhabited settlement in the United States. As a federally recognized Indian Tribe, the Acoma Pueblo now presides over a land base spanning 431,664 acres, home to approximately 4,800 tribal members. While fewer than 50 of these members reside directly at the ancient pueblo today, most choosing to live in nearby villages, the community remains vibrant.
The contemporary Acoma people steadfastly continue the traditions of their ancestors, whose lineage they trace to the inhabitants of older ruins situated north and west of their current pueblo. While some practice ancient religions, others have embraced Catholicism, a legacy of the early Spanish settlers from the 1500s. Throughout the year, celebrations and feasts are held to commemorate religious and historic occasions. Visitors are warmly welcomed to attend these events, with a respectful awareness of local customs and protocols being strongly encouraged.
The Acoma people are renowned globally for their superb pottery, a tradition spanning millennia. A permanent exhibit titled “One Thousand Years of Clay” is proudly housed in the Visitors Center at the base of the mesa, accompanied by shops offering native food and exquisite crafts. The tribe also expertly operates the Acoma Route 66 Interpretive Center just off I-40 and the Acoma Commercial Center. For those seeking outdoor recreation, the pueblo offers fishing opportunities at its recently developed Acoma Lake.
Visiting Sky City
The Acoma Pueblo is conveniently located 60 miles west of Albuquerque via Interstate 40, followed by a 12-mile drive south on Indian Route 23. From Grants, it is just 12 miles east on I-40. Guided tours of the pueblo are available between March and October, providing an unparalleled opportunity to explore this living historical treasure. A fee is required for entry, and visitors are advised that cameras without a special license are not permitted. It is recommended to check with the Sky City visitor center at the base of the mesa for the most current information regarding tours and regulations.
Conclusion: A Legacy Forged in Stone and Spirit
The Acoma Pueblo stands as a powerful symbol of endurance, a place where history is not just preserved but actively lived. From its origins as a strategic defensive stronghold to its harrowing encounters with Spanish colonization and its remarkable rebirth, Sky City embodies the resilience and unwavering spirit of the Acoma people. Their continuous habitation for over a millennium, coupled with their rich cultural heritage and commitment to tradition, ensures that the “People of the White Rock” will continue to inspire and educate generations to come, their legacy etched indelibly into the New Mexico landscape.
