The Cheyenne, a prominent Native American tribe of Algonquian linguistic stock, boast a rich and often tumultuous history that spans centuries. Known for their close alliances with the Arapaho and Gros Ventre, and later with the Lakota Sioux, the Cheyenne people originally inhabited the Great Lakes region before embarking on a transformative westward migration. They call themselves “Tsitsistas,” a name interpreted in various meaningful ways, including “people alike,” “our people,” “red talker,” or “people of a different speech.”
Initially, the Cheyenne lived in permanent settlements in the Great Lakes area, specifically modern-day Minnesota and along the Missouri River. Here, their lifestyle was rooted in agriculture, living in sturdy earth-covered log houses and practicing pottery. However, the late 1600s marked a pivotal shift, as increasing competition and conflicts with tribes like the Ojibwe, Arikara, and Mandan compelled them to migrate westward. This forced movement catalyzed a profound cultural transformation, turning them into nomadic hunters and gatherers.
By the 1700s, the acquisition of horses from the Spanish dramatically reshaped Cheyenne society, enabling them to become highly skilled and revered buffalo hunters. This iconic Plains Indian lifestyle was firmly established by the time Lewis and Clark encountered them in 1804 near the Black Hills of South Dakota. Further pressures, including hostility from the Sioux, pushed the Cheyenne deeper into the plains, leading them to, in turn, drive the Kiowa tribe further south.
The Great Divide: Northern and Southern Cheyenne
The year 1832 saw a significant geographical and cultural split within the Cheyenne nation. One group established itself along the Platte River, close to the Black Hills in the north, becoming known as the Northern Cheyenne. The other group moved southward, settling near the Arkansas River in present-day Colorado, forming the Southern Cheyenne. Despite this division, individual bands of the tribe were known to traverse and temporarily inhabit various states across the American West at different times. The Southern Cheyenne initially faced conflict with the Kiowa and Comanche over territorial claims in the Arkansas River region. However, after numerous engagements, a crucial alliance was forged in 1840 between the Cheyenne, Kiowa, Apache, and Comanche tribes, solidifying their power in the southern plains.
Conflicts, Treaties, and Betrayal
The westward expansion of American settlers in the mid-19th century brought increasing tension and conflict. The Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851 attempted to establish defined territories, granting the Cheyenne a vast area in northern Colorado, encompassing future sites of Fort Collins, Denver, and Colorado Springs. However, this peace was short-lived. The discovery of gold during the Pike’s Peak Gold Rush in 1858 led to a massive influx of prospectors, effectively nullifying the 1851 treaty and usurping Cheyenne lands. This profound betrayal escalated hostilities, with Native American groups, including the Cheyenne and their allies, launching retaliatory attacks on wagon trains, mining camps, and stagecoach lines, particularly during the American Civil War when military presence was reduced.
The Sand Creek Massacre (1864)
The escalating violence culminated in what became known as the Colorado War of 1864-1865. Its darkest chapter, the Sand Creek Massacre, unfolded on November 29, 1864. Despite being encamped under the promised protection of Fort Lyon and flying an American flag and a white flag of truce, Chief Black Kettle’s peaceful band of Cheyenne and Arapaho was brutally attacked by Colonel John Chivington’s 700-man militia. In this horrific event, more than 150 Native American men, women, and children were slaughtered, forever scarring the relationship between the tribes and the U.S. government. The aftermath of Sand Creek fueled a fervent desire for vengeance and intensified defensive battles against the encroaching settlers and the U.S. Army.
Further Battles and Displacement
The Battle of Washita River (1868)
Following the Sand Creek Massacre, the Cheyenne people were coerced onto a reservation in Oklahoma. Yet, the tragedy continued. On November 27, 1868, Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer and the 7th U.S. Cavalry launched a surprise attack on Chief Black Kettle’s peaceful Cheyenne encampment along the Washita River. Although legally on reservation land and flying a white flag, over 100 Cheyenne were killed, predominantly women and children, including Chief Black Kettle himself. This event, known as the Battle of Washita River, further demonstrated the government’s broken promises and the harsh realities faced by Native Americans.
The Battle of the Little Bighorn (1876)
A significant, albeit temporary, victory for Native Americans occurred on June 25, 1876. In the legendary Battle of the Little Bighorn, a combined force of Cheyenne, Lakota Sioux, and a small band of Arapaho decisively annihilated George Armstrong Custer and his troops near the Little Bighorn River. This monumental event, often referred to as “Custer’s Last Stand,” resulted in the deaths of 262 soldiers, while an estimated 60 Indian warriors were killed. It stands as one of the greatest military victories for Native American tribes against the U.S. Army, though its repercussions would soon follow.
The Fight for a Homeland and Enduring Spirit
The victory at Little Bighorn intensified efforts to confine the Cheyenne to reservations. In 1877, nearly 1,000 Northern Cheyenne were forcibly marched to Indian Territory (Oklahoma), where they faced severe conditions, including rampant illness and death from malaria, a climate to which they were unaccustomed. While the Southern Cheyenne reluctantly accepted their Oklahoma reservation, many Northern Cheyenne found the conditions intolerable. In 1878, led by courageous Chiefs Dull Knife and Little Wolf, they undertook a desperate and epic flight back to their ancestral lands in the north. This defiant exodus, known as the Northern Cheyenne Exodus, was met with relentless pursuit by the U.S. Army, resulting in numerous casualties along the way.
The band eventually split; Little Wolf successfully led his group to safety in Montana. Dull Knife’s group, however, was captured and interned at Fort Robinson, Nebraska. Here, they steadfastly refused orders to return to the Oklahoma reservation. In a daring move in January 1879, Dull Knife and his followers made a desperate escape from Fort Robinson. Although many were shot during their flight, an estimated 50, including Dull Knife, survived, eventually reuniting with the Northern Cheyenne who had reached Montana. Their unwavering determination paid off. In 1884, an Executive Order finally established a permanent reservation for the Northern Cheyenne in southeast Montana, a testament to their enduring spirit and fight for their homeland.
Conclusion: A Legacy of Resilience
From their agricultural roots in the Great Lakes to their renowned status as nomadic buffalo hunters of the Great Plains, the Cheyenne people have demonstrated incredible resilience and adaptability throughout their history. Their story is one of profound cultural change, fierce resistance against injustice, and unwavering determination to preserve their heritage. Today, the Cheyenne nation continues to thrive, with two primary reservations. The Northern Cheyenne Reservation is located along the Tongue River in Montana, home to approximately 6,500 people. The Southern Cheyenne share a reservation in southwestern Oklahoma with their long-standing allies, the Arapaho, encompassing about 11,000 members. The legacy of the Cheyenne stands as a powerful reminder of Native American strength, perseverance, and the enduring connection to their land and traditions.
