The Chinookan people represent a significant group of Native Americans who traditionally inhabited the Pacific Northwest, specifically along the Columbia River from its mouth to The Dalles, spanning parts of modern-day Washington and Oregon. These resourceful communities, bound by closely related Chinookan languages, established a rich and complex societal structure deeply connected to the abundant natural resources of their homeland.
Known for their settled lifestyle, the Chinookan people thrived in villages dotting the banks of the Columbia River and its tributaries. These settlements, varying in size, were generally independent, each guided by a headman or chief whose influence might occasionally extend to neighboring communities. Their profound connection to the land and its offerings shaped their daily lives and cultural practices.
Traditional Lifestyle and Societal Structure
Life for the Chinookan people revolved around the rich biodiversity of the Pacific Northwest. While men primarily engaged in hunting elk, deer, and bear, fishing was paramount, with salmon forming the cornerstone of their diet. Women played a vital role, gathering and processing a diverse array of nuts, seeds, roots, and berries. Although largely settled, the summer months often saw temporary migrations for more extensive hunting and fishing expeditions, with the falls of the Columbia and Willamette Rivers serving as crucial gathering points during the salmon season.
Their distinctive longhouses, constructed from red cedar planks, were central to Chinookan community life. These impressive structures, measuring between 20-60 feet wide and 50-150 feet long, housed extended kinship groups, sometimes accommodating 50 or more individuals. Inside, reed mats laid over raised boards provided sleeping arrangements. Due to their stable living patterns and abundant resources, conflicts over land among the Chinook and other coastal tribes were relatively rare; their territories were rich and generally respected.
Chinookan society was marked by distinct social classes. The upper echelons, comprising a minority of the population, included esteemed shamans, formidable warriors, and highly successful traders. This elite class practiced social discrimination, limiting interaction with commoners and even restricting play between children of differing social standings. A unique identifier of high status among some Chinookan tribes was the practice of head binding. This involved gently flattening an infant’s forehead and skull between boards from around three months to a year of age, resulting in a distinctive appearance that early European explorers often noted, mistakenly coining the term “Flathead Indians.” Those with flattened heads held a higher rank and would not enslave individuals similarly marked.
Slaves constituted a significant portion of the population, with some historians estimating up to 25% of the area’s inhabitants were enslaved. They were typically acquired through barter with surrounding tribes or occasionally through targeted raids. Free people were categorized into a powerful elite and commoners who, despite being household members, wielded limited influence.
Spirituality among the Chinook centered on significant rituals, including the first-salmon rite, an annual ceremony welcoming the crucial salmon run. The individual vision quest was another pivotal practice, undertaken by adolescent males and some females to acquire a guardian spirit. This spirit was believed to bestow powers for hunting, healing, or other abilities, bringing good fortune or teaching sacred songs and dances, which were publicly demonstrated in singing ceremonies.
Masterful Traders and Early European Contact
The Chinookan people were renowned for their extraordinary skills as canoe builders, navigators, and fishermen, but it was their prowess as masterful traders that truly set them apart. Their extensive trade networks stretched inland as far as the Great Plains, facilitating the exchange of diverse goods such as dried fish, slaves, expertly crafted canoes, shells, and various ornaments. The annual trade fair at The Dalles stood as the largest in Western North America, and all movement of materials between the coast and this vital hub traversed Chinookan territory. Their canoes, hollowed from single logs, were often of impressive size and exceptional craftsmanship.
By the late 1700s, Spanish, American, and British voyagers began to frequently encounter Chinook tribes. One of the most significant early encounters was with the American explorers Lewis and Clark, who documented the Chinook in 1805 and again in 1806.
As the Corps of Discovery descended the Columbia River in the fall of 1805, they were forewarned by the Nez Perce of the distinctive culture and language of the Chinook downstream. Despite rumors of potential hostility, the expedition proceeded. The Chinook, already accustomed to European goods and traders, initially engaged peacefully with the expedition. On October 26, 1805, Chinook chiefs and their men offered gifts of deer meat and root bread, receiving medals and trinkets in return.
“All go lightly dressed wearing nothing below the waist in the coldest weather, a piece of fur around their bodies and a short robe compose the sum total of their dress, except a few hats and beads about their necks, arms, and legs.”
— William Clark
While early receptions were similar as Lewis and Clark neared the Pacific Ocean, the expedition soon faced issues with theft, leading to strained relations. This prompted the Corps to winter on the south side of the river among the Clatsop, rather than with the Lower Chinookan bands. Visits from the Chinook were restricted at Fort Clatsop, and overnight stays were forbidden. Both captains’ journals reflect somewhat low opinions of Chinookan customs and appearance, though one chief assured Lewis of his village’s desire for peace.
“I hope that the friendly interposition of this chief may prevent our being compelled to use some violence with these people; our men seem well disposed to kill a few of them.”
— Meriwether Lewis
Despite these tensions, the expedition continued past The Dalles and returned to Nez Perce country without hostile engagement. At this time, the estimated Chinook population in the valley during spring and summer reached as high as 10,000, a number that would tragically decline in subsequent decades.
The Devastating Impact of European Diseases and Land Dispossession
The arrival of Europeans brought not only trade but also devastating epidemics that decimated Native populations. In 1824-25, outbreaks of smallpox and malaria ravaged the Northwest Coast, and by 1830, many Chinook villages near Fort Vancouver were almost abandoned. Chinook Chief Comcomly himself succumbed to a fever epidemic that year, a stark illustration of the widespread devastation.
The following decades saw an influx of missionaries and settlers. In 1844, another epidemic, dysentery, swept through the Northwest. By 1845, missionaries and traders began to outnumber the Indigenous populations, whose numbers were drastically reduced by disease. By 1850, it is estimated that only about 4,000 Chinook remained.
Treaties with the Chinookan people and other tribes commenced in 1851, despite Congress having acknowledged Indian title to their lands in the 1848 Organic Act. Although the tribes signed these treaties in good faith, Congress never ratified them, rendering the subsequent land acquisition for settlement illegal.
Later, between 1853 and 1855, some treaties were ratified but significantly lacked recognition of traditional hunting and fishing rights. Instead, they reserved only small remnants of ancestral homelands and offered meager payments, a few pennies per acre, distributed in annuities over two decades. This unjust treatment fueled intense Indian-white relations, particularly in gold rush areas. Violence frequently erupted, often instigated by white militias who committed atrocities against non-combatant villages, including the killing of elders, women, and children, and the systematic burning of homes.
In the ensuing decades, the tribes were forcibly moved onto reservations. In 1899, the Chinook initiated legal battles for land rights, seeking compensation for lands never paid for by the U.S. Government. These legal struggles persist to this day as the Chinook strive to hold the government accountable for its unfulfilled promises. By 1911, with the breaking up of reservations and the distribution of allotments, the Chinook population had dwindled to approximately 1,000 individuals.
Modern Chinook Nation: Resilience and the Fight for Federal Recognition
Today, some Chinookan-speaking people are recognized as members of federally recognized tribes, including the Yakama Nation, the Confederated Tribes of the Warm Springs Reservation, the Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde Community, and the Confederated Tribes of Siletz Indians. However, the Chinook Indian Nation, an umbrella organization encompassing the five westernmost Chinookan tribes—the Lower Chinook, Clatsop, Willapa, Wahkiakum, and Cathlamet—continues its valiant struggle for federal recognition.
Under President Bill Clinton, the Chinook Nation briefly gained federal recognition from the Department of Interior in 2001. However, this recognition was controversially revoked in 2002 by political appointees under President George W. Bush. In 2008 and 2009, the Chinook Nation sought Congressional support, with bills introduced for legislative recognition, but these unfortunately stalled in Congress.
Despite these profound setbacks, the Chinook Indian Nation remains steadfast in its campaign to secure formal recognition. They diligently conduct research and develop documentation to substantiate their historical claims. Without federal status, the Chinook people are deprived of crucial resources for their citizens, including vital Eldercare, healthcare, housing, and education benefits. Their population is currently estimated at about 3,000 descendants.
The Chinook Nation maintains offices in Bay Center, Washington, symbolizing their ongoing presence and advocacy. They actively preserve their cultural heritage through events such as the Annual Winter Gathering at the plank house in Ridgefield, Washington, and the Annual First Salmon Ceremony at Chinook Point (Fort Columbia) on the North Shore of the Columbia River. These gatherings underscore the enduring resilience and cultural vitality of the Chinookan people, who continue their unwavering commitment to correcting their federal status and ensuring the well-being of future generations.
