The mid-19th century witnessed a rapidly escalating crisis for control of the Great Plains, reaching a critical juncture around the time of the Fetterman Massacre near Fort Phil Kearny, Wyoming, in 1866. Over the preceding 15 years, the expansion of overland trails, the opening of rich mining territories, and the relentless drive for a transcontinental railway had intensified pressure on Native American lands. With Congress aggressively authorizing and incentivizing the construction of the Union Pacific and Central Pacific railroads, the race for land grants put immense strain on the already fragile peace, leading swiftly to a full-blown Native American crisis.
A Nation Divided: Policy Debates and Conflicting Views
As tensions mounted, fundamental disagreements emerged within the United States government regarding the management of Native American tribes. Debates raged in Congress over whether the War Department or the Department of the Interior should hold primary control. More profoundly, there was a stark divide on overall policy. Senator John Sherman articulated a prevailing view that “Indian wars will not cease until all the Indian tribes are absorbed in our population and can be controlled by constables instead of soldiers.” Echoing a similar sentiment, Francis A. Walker suggested that treating with “savages” was merely a question of what was “safest or easiest.”
However, not all prominent figures shared this perspective. Seasoned frontiersmen like Colonel Henry Inman and renowned Indian fighter Kit Carson openly declared that conflicts were often initiated by “broken faith on the part of the United States or its agents” and “aggressions on the part of the whites.” Amidst these conflicting reports and a perceived lack of unbiased information, Congress formed a joint committee in March 1865 to investigate the condition of Native American tribes.
The Committee’s Dire Findings
After more than a year of investigation, which included visiting active conflict zones like the sites of the Dakota Uprising, the Sand Creek Massacre, and the Fetterman Massacre, the committee reported in January 1867. Their findings painted a bleak picture for Native Americans. Generals like John Pope warned of tribes
