The Operations Against Vicksburg encompassed a critical series of maneuvers and battles in the Western Theater of the American Civil War, initiating in December 1862 and culminating in July 1863. These determined efforts targeted Vicksburg, Mississippi, a fortress city of immense strategic importance that held command over the last Confederate-controlled section of the Mississippi River, making its capture absolutely vital for Union success.
Historians often divide this complex campaign into two primary phases: the initial Operations Against Vicksburg from December 1862 to January 1863, and the more extensive Grant’s Vicksburg Campaign, which unfolded from March to July 1863. Under the strategic direction of Major General Ulysses S. Grant, the Union aimed to seize this Confederate bastion, recognizing that control of the Mississippi would effectively sever the Confederacy and cripple its logistical capabilities.
The Strategic Importance of Vicksburg
Vicksburg’s commanding position atop high bluffs overlooking a sharp bend in the Mississippi River rendered it a naturally formidable fortress, earning it the moniker “Gibraltar of the Confederacy.” For the Union, securing Vicksburg was a cornerstone of the Anaconda Plan, designed to bisect the Confederacy, disrupt vital supply lines, and sever communication between its eastern and western territories. President Abraham Lincoln underscored its importance, stating, “Vicksburg is the key. The war can never be brought to a close until that key is in our pocket.” For the Confederacy, the city was an indispensable link, enabling the movement of crucial resources and troops. Its heavily fortified batteries effectively closed a significant portion of the river to Union navigation, making any direct approach by water extremely perilous.
Initial Union Maneuvers: Sherman’s Yazoo Expedition
The Two-Pronged Approach
Major General Ulysses S. Grant initially conceived a two-pronged assault. Major General William T. Sherman’s contingent would advance along the Yazoo River to attack Vicksburg from the northeast, while Grant led the main army down the Mississippi Central Railroad, aiming to sever Confederate supply lines. However, Grant’s overland advance was thwarted when Confederate cavalry, under Major General Earl Van Dorn, destroyed his critical supply depot at Holly Springs in December 1862. This forced Grant to withdraw, leaving Sherman’s force isolated and vulnerable.
The Battle of Chickasaw Bayou (December 26-29, 1862)
Despite Grant’s retreat, Sherman pressed on with his offensive, leading to the Battle of Chickasaw Bayou (also known as Chickasaw Bluffs). On December 26, 1862, Sherman’s divisions disembarked on the Yazoo River, facing the formidable terrain of swamps and bluffs leading to the Confederate defenses atop Walnut Hills, commanded by Lieutenant General John C. Pemberton. For two days, Union troops struggled through the difficult landscape, attempting to breach or flank the entrenched Confederate positions.
On December 29th, Sherman ordered a desperate frontal assault against the heavily fortified lines. The attack was met with devastating Confederate fire, resulting in a swift and bloody repulse for the Union. Sherman’s army suffered approximately 1,776 casualties compared to just 207 Confederates, highlighting the strength of the Vicksburg defenses. This decisive Confederate victory effectively stymied Grant’s initial, direct efforts to capture Vicksburg and forced Sherman to withdraw.
Diversionary Tactics and Unsuccessful Expeditions
The Arkansas Post Expedition (January 9-11, 1863)
Following the defeat at Chickasaw Bayou, Sherman proposed a joint land and naval expedition against Arkansas Post, a Confederate fort on the Arkansas River used by gunboats to harass Union shipping. Grant approved, and the Battle of Arkansas Post, fought from January 9-11, 1863, resulted in a swift Union victory, neutralizing the threat and capturing over 5,000 Confederate prisoners. While a tactical success that boosted Union morale, it was a diversion from the main objective of Vicksburg.
Grant’s Bayou Operations (Winter 1862-1863)
Throughout the winter of 1862-1863, with direct assaults proven too costly, General Grant embarked on a series of ambitious but ultimately unsuccessful engineering projects known as “Grant’s Bayou Operations.” These efforts aimed to bypass Vicksburg’s formidable defenses by creating navigable channels through the complex network of bayous and swamps west and north of the city. Projects like Grant’s Canal, the Lake Providence Route, the Yazoo Pass Expedition, and Steele’s Bayou Expedition all sought to reposition Union forces or naval vessels to a more advantageous attacking position on the Mississippi River, south of Vicksburg, or to outflank the Confederate stronghold. However, these initiatives were plagued by insurmountable engineering challenges, adverse weather, the spread of disease among troops, and determined Confederate resistance. Despite immense effort and resource expenditure, none of these elaborate bypass attempts succeeded in achieving their strategic goals, forcing Grant to reconsider his entire approach and leading him to plan an even bolder, more direct campaign.
Grant’s Masterpiece: The Spring Campaign (March-July 1863)
Learning from the failures of his winter campaigns, Grant conceived a daring and unconventional plan for the spring of 1863—a strategy widely considered a masterpiece of military design. This involved moving his army south of Vicksburg on the west bank of the Mississippi, crossing the river, and then operating deep within enemy territory, intentionally severing his supply lines to achieve greater speed and surprise.
Crossing the Mississippi and Inland Thrust
In April 1863, after Admiral David Dixon Porter’s Union gunboats successfully ran the Vicksburg batteries, Grant began ferrying his troops across the Mississippi River south of the city. A clever feint at Grand Gulf diverted Confederate attention, allowing the main Union force to cross virtually unopposed at Bruinsburg on April 30. Grant then rapidly marched his army inland, making the bold decision to strike the state capital of Jackson, Mississippi, before turning on Vicksburg. His goal was to prevent Confederate forces under General Joseph E. Johnston from reinforcing Lieutenant General John C. Pemberton’s Vicksburg garrison.
Decisive Battles Leading to Vicksburg
Grant’s army moved with incredible speed. They secured victories at Port Gibson (May 1) and Raymond (May 12) before capturing Jackson on May 14, destroying vital Confederate infrastructure. With Jackson secured, Grant immediately turned his army westward toward Vicksburg. Pemberton, under conflicting orders, attempted a cautious offensive, leading to a series of critical engagements:
- Battle of Champion Hill (May 16): The most decisive engagement of the campaign. Grant’s forces inflicted a crushing defeat on Pemberton’s army, forcing a disorganized retreat.
- Battle of Big Black River Bridge (May 17): Union forces pursued the retreating Confederates, who were again routed, losing many men and supplies, and burning the bridge behind them.
These rapid Union victories shattered Confederate resistance outside Vicksburg and drove Pemberton’s battered army into the city’s defenses, where they were completely encircled.
The Siege of Vicksburg (May 18-July 4, 1863)
By May 18, 1863, Grant’s army had successfully encircled Vicksburg. Believing a quick victory possible, Grant launched two major frontal assaults on the city’s formidable defenses on May 19 and May 22. Both attacks were repulsed with heavy Union casualties, particularly the second assault. Recognizing the futility of direct storming, Grant settled into a prolonged siege.
For the next 47 days, Union artillery continuously bombarded the city, while engineers dug extensive trench lines closer to the Confederate defenses. Within Vicksburg, soldiers and civilians endured immense hardship, living in caves to escape the constant shelling. Dwindling food supplies led to widespread starvation, forcing the consumption of mules and rats. Morale plummeted as hopes for external relief faded. Lieutenant General John C. Pemberton, with his army starving, exhausted, and isolated, had no option but to surrender.
On July 4, 1863, the city of Vicksburg officially surrendered to Major General Ulysses S. Grant. This monumental Union victory completed the Anaconda Plan’s objective, securing full control of the Mississippi River and irrevocably splitting the Confederacy. Coincidentally, this triumph came just one day after the decisive Union victory at Gettysburg, marking July 1863 as a catastrophic month for the Confederate cause and a definitive turning point in the war.
Conclusion: A Turning Point in the Civil War
The fall of Vicksburg on July 4, 1863, alongside the surrender of Port Hudson just days later, irrevocably altered the course of the American Civil War. The Union’s complete control of the Mississippi River effectively severed the Confederacy, isolating its western states and denying crucial communication and supply routes. This strategic accomplishment dealt a devastating blow to the Confederate war effort and its morale. Moreover, the Operations Against Vicksburg catapulted Ulysses S. Grant to national prominence, solidifying his reputation as a brilliant, relentless, and decisive military strategist. His audacious campaign, characterized by bold maneuvers, logistical independence, and an unwavering focus on the objective, showcased a tactical genius that would eventually lead him to command all Union armies and guide them to ultimate victory. The Vicksburg Campaign stands as a testament to the strategic complexities and brutal realities of the Civil War, and its lessons continue to be studied as a landmark in military history.
