The Native Americans in the 20th Century experienced a period of profound transformation, marked by significant challenges and remarkable resilience. As the United States transitioned into the new century, governmental efforts initially focused on aggressive assimilation, aiming to strip Native Americans of their rich cultural heritage and traditions to conform them to mainstream American society. The Bureau of Indian Affairs was tasked with bridging the gap between the Federal Government and various Indian tribes, ostensibly through treaties and assimilation policies designed for coexistence.
However, by 1934, the profound failures of these assimilation strategies became undeniably clear. This realization led to a pivotal shift with the passage of the Indian Reorganization Act, which aimed to reverse the long-standing goal of assimilation. Instead, it sought to strengthen, encourage, and perpetuate tribal sovereignty, historic traditions, and distinct cultures. While this legislative change offered much-needed support, the deep-seated memories of past injustices persisted. Subsequent decades saw further legislation, sometimes contradictory, as the U.S. government grappled with how Native Americans fit into the national fabric. By the 1950s, a controversial federal policy of termination emerged, intending to abolish tribes, relocate American Indians, and integrate them fully into mainstream society as taxpaying citizens, subject to state and federal laws from which they had previously been exempt. This policy sparked a powerful Native American Civil Rights Movement, significantly increasing public awareness and fostering a potent political agenda. The latter half of the 20th century was thus defined by numerous lawsuits and concerted efforts to rectify the wrongs committed in preceding centuries, solidifying the fight for self-determination and recognition.
The Early 20th Century: Assimilation, Legal Battles, and Emerging Voices (1900-1933)
The dawn of the 20th century brought new forms of engagement between Native Americans and the U.S. government. In 1900, photographer Edward S. Curtis began his monumental work, documenting Native American cultures across the Western United States, culminating in his 20-volume series published between 1907 and 1930. These photographs captured a vanishing way of life, even as policies pushed for its eradication.
Significant Legal and Political Developments
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1903 – Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock: This landmark Supreme Court decision severely curtailed tribal sovereignty, ruling that Congress possessed the unilateral power to abrogate the provisions of an Indian treaty by statute, even without tribal consent. This ruling arose after the Kiowa and Comanche tribes sued to prevent the transfer of their lands, a clear violation of the 1867 Treaty of Medicine Lodge.
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1906 – Antiquities Act: This act declared Indian bones and cultural objects found on federal land as property of the United States, further diminishing Native American control over their heritage.
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1906 – Burke Act: Amending the Dawes Act, this legislation granted the Secretary of the Interior the power to remove allotments from trust status early if holders were deemed to have “adopted the habits of civilized life,” accelerating the loss of tribal lands.
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1907 – Oklahoma Statehood: The merging of Oklahoma Territory and Indian Territory into the State of Oklahoma opened former Indian lands to increased non-Indian settlement, drastically impacting numerous tribes.
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1907 – Charles Curtis: A significant milestone was achieved when Charles Curtis became the first Native American U.S. Senator, representing Kansas. He would later make history as the first Native American U.S. Vice President.
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1908 – Winters v. United States: In a crucial victory for tribal rights, the Supreme Court affirmed the concept of federally reserved water rights for reservations. This decision stemmed from a lawsuit by Indians of the Fort Belknap reservation in Montana, asserting their right to sufficient water for survival, implicitly intended when reservations were created.
Native Americans in the 20th Century: A Journey of Resilience and Change – Illustration 2
Cultural Survival and Pan-Indian Unity
Despite pressures, Native American culture endured and began to foster unified political action. In 1911, the Society of American Indians was formed, representing the first step toward pan-Indian unity. Established and managed exclusively by educated American Indians, this organization, though often favoring assimilation, also lobbied for critical reforms, including improved healthcare on reservations, citizenship, and a special court of claims for Indians.
A poignant symbol of cultural perseverance emerged in 1911 with Ishi, the last known member of the Yahi people, who emerged from isolation in northern California. His story captivated the nation, highlighting the extreme impacts of 19th-century genocide.
Native Americans in Wartime and the Path to Citizenship
The 20th century also saw Native Americans contribute significantly to global conflicts. During World War I, approximately 17,000 Indians served in the armed forces. Their service was often complicated by their non-citizen status, leading some to resist the draft, asserting tribal sovereignty. Notably, the Iroquois Confederacy declared war on Germany independently in 1917, a powerful statement of distinct nationhood.
By 1919, Indian veterans of World War I were granted citizenship, recognizing their sacrifices. This partial recognition paved the way for broader change. In 1924, The Indian Citizenship Act extended citizenship to all American Indians born in the U.S. While a significant step, some preferred to maintain only their tribal membership, underscoring the complexities of identity and sovereignty.
Culturally, the Native American Church was established in Oklahoma in 1918, integrating the ancient use of peyote with Christian principles. Despite early prohibitions in various states, the Church played an essential role in the lives of many Indian people, promoting morality and self-respect.
Reforming Indian Policy
The 1920s brought increasing scrutiny of federal Indian policy. The Meriam Report, commissioned in 1926 and released in 1928, provided a stark indictment of the poverty, ill health, and despair prevalent in many Indian communities. It explicitly identified the Dawes Act as a root cause of reservation poverty, criticized overcrowded and unsanitary boarding schools, and recommended significant reforms. These included the termination of allotments, phasing out boarding schools, and promoting the social and economic advancement of Native Americans.
In 1929, Charles Curtis achieved another historic milestone, becoming the first Native American to serve as U.S. Vice President under President Herbert Hoover.
The Indian New Deal and World War II (1934-1945)
The Great Depression spurred a fundamental reevaluation of U.S. Indian policy, leading to the
