Mormon polygamy, often referred to as plural marriage, was a foundational, albeit controversial, practice within The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints for over half of the 19th century. This complex institution, which saw up to 30 percent of church families engaging in plural unions from its public announcement in 1852 until its official cessation in 1890, profoundly shaped the early history and public perception of the Mormon Church.
The origins of Mormon polygamy trace back to Joseph Smith, the founder of the Mormon Church. After establishing the Church in New York in 1830, Smith reported a series of divine visions, including one that instructed him on the ancient practice of plural marriage. While the Book of Mormon, translated by Smith from ancient golden tablets, became a central text, the doctrine of plural marriage, according to his contemporaries, came as a direct revelation, commanding Smith to take multiple wives, reminiscent of biblical patriarchs.
The Early Practice of Plural Marriage Under Joseph Smith
In the early 1840s, while the Church was established in Nauvoo, Illinois, Joseph Smith formally instituted the practice known as plural marriage. He allegedly received a revelation in 1843 stating that living ‘the principle of plural or celestial marriage’ in this life was essential for attaining the fullness of God’s celestial glory in the afterlife. This revelation became a cornerstone for the practice.
Private Beginnings and Public Denials
Despite the formal establishment in the 1840s, historical accounts from early converts like Brigham Young, Orson Pratt, and Lyman Johnson suggest that Smith was teaching the concept of plural marriage privately as early as 1831 or 1832. These early discussions indicated that while the principle was considered true, the time for its widespread practice had not yet arrived. For years, Smith publicly condemned and denied any involvement in polygamy, even excommunicating members who practiced it outside of his sanctioned, discreet circles. However, in July 1843, Smith gathered his closest followers and declared his intention for the Church to return to the polygamous marriage practices of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.
Joseph Smith’s Plural Marriages and His Demise
Records kept by Smith’s scribe, William Clayton, provide insight into the early plural marriages. Clayton documented his participation in the marriage of Lucy Walker to Joseph Smith on May 1, 1843, and recalled several other women Smith acknowledged as his lawful, wedded wives according to the celestial order, including Eliza Partridge, Emily Partridge, Sarah Ann Whitney, Helen Kimball, and Flora Woodworth. It is also noted that his first wife, Emma, was aware of some, if not all, of these marriages and generally treated the women kindly. Less than a year later, on June 27, 1844, Joseph Smith and his brother Hyrum were tragically murdered in a Carthage, Illinois jail cell. This event occurred while Smith awaited trial on charges stemming, in part, from his promotion of polygamy. At the time of his death, Smith was believed to have married as many as 40 wives.
Brigham Young and the Open Embrace of Polygamy
Following Joseph Smith’s death, leadership of the Church transitioned to Brigham Young. Emma Smith, Joseph’s first wife, denounced plural marriage and remained in Illinois, aligning with the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, which rejected polygamy. Meanwhile, Brigham Young led the majority of Mormons on their historic migration across the United States to settle in Utah.
The Public Announcement in Utah
On August 29, 1852, Brigham Young made a momentous public announcement to the world, declaring that Mormon polygamy, or plural marriage, was the ideal form of marriage in God’s eyes. Young stated, “God never introduced the Patriarchal order of marriage with a view to please man in his carnal desires, nor to punish females for anything which they had done; but He introduced it for the express purpose of raising up to His name a royal Priesthood, a peculiar people.” This declaration solidified the practice as a core tenet for the mainstream Church in Utah.
Demographics and Motivations
During this period, Mormons actively encouraged the formation of polygamous marriages, driven by theological beliefs about bringing many spirits into the present world and ensuring that all females could be married. While considered the ideal, plural marriage was not universal; it was primarily observed among the more affluent members and higher-level Church leaders, reflecting the economic and social resources required to sustain such family structures.
Government Opposition and Legal Challenges
From its inception, the practice of Mormon polygamy sparked significant disapproval from the American public and government authorities. The Republican platform famously denounced polygamy alongside slavery as “the twin relics of barbarism.” This widespread condemnation set the stage for nearly six decades of conflict between the Church and the United States government.
The Battle for Religious Freedom
The Mormons staunchly defended plural marriage as a matter of religious freedom, while the federal government aggressively sought its eradication, aligning with prevailing public opinion. This contentious issue played a significant role in the Utah War of 1857-1858. In 1862, the United States Congress passed the Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act, which formally prohibited plural marriage in the territories. However, Mormons largely disregarded this law, believing their practice was protected under the First Amendment.
Supreme Court Rulings and Increased Persecution
The legal battle escalated in 1879 when the Supreme Court of the United States upheld the Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act in the case of Reynolds v. United States. The Court famously declared, “Laws are made for the government of actions, and while they cannot interfere with mere religious belief and opinion, they may with practices.” This ruling severely undermined the Church’s legal defense of plural marriage. In 1887, the Edmunds-Tucker Bill was passed, making unrecorded marriages a felony and authorizing federal authorities to seize personal and Church assets. This led to many polygamous families going “underground” to evade imprisonment. Between 1884 and 1895, approximately 1,400 indictments were issued against Mormons, with hundreds sentenced to prison. Mormon men were often stereotyped as fanatics, and missionaries faced attacks from mobs. In response, many church leaders went into hiding, and large numbers of Mormons migrated to less restrictive areas such as Colorado, Wyoming, Arizona, Canada, and Mexico.
The Manifestos and the End of Official Practice
By 1890, the pressure from the U.S. government became insurmountable. It was clear that Utah would not be granted statehood while Mormon polygamy continued to be officially sanctioned by the Church.
The 1890 Manifesto and Utah Statehood
In a pivotal moment, Church President Wilford Woodruff issued the 1890 Manifesto, which officially terminated the practice of polygamy within the Church. This monumental decision paved the way for Utah’s admission as a state in 1896, marking a significant turning point in the Church’s relationship with the federal government.
The 1904 Second Manifesto and Its Aftermath
Despite the 1890 Manifesto, some Mormons continued to enter into plural marriages covertly. This clandestine practice prompted further action. In 1904, following intense Senate hearings and an effort to repair the Church’s damaged reputation, President Joseph F. Smith (nephew of the founding prophet) disavowed polygamy before Congress. He subsequently issued a “Second Manifesto,” which unequivocally called for all plural marriages to cease and established excommunication as a consequence for disobedience. Ironically, Joseph F. Smith himself had six wives and fathered 48 children prior to this directive. President Smith traveled to the Mormon colonies in Mexico to reinforce the Manifesto, stating, “There are no plural marriages being performed at present in the Church, in Mexico or anywhere else… The Church is upon trial before the Government of the United States, and we must be very careful.”
Mexican Colonies and the Exodus
Many Mormons had emigrated to Mexico in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, establishing colonies as refuges where polygamous families could live without fear of prosecution. While those who had married into polygamy before 1904 were allowed to continue living as plural families, no new such marriages were permitted. The onset of the Mexican Revolution (1910-1920), however, eroded their ability to maintain cohesive family units and forced most Mormon colonists to flee north to the United States. In 1912, a mass exodus saw approximately 4,500 Mormon colonists, including future Utah Senator Mitt Romney’s father, George, return to American soil.
Modern Context and Fundamentalist Groups
In the years following the official end of plural marriage, several small “fundamentalist” groups emerged, seeking to perpetuate the practice. These groups formally split from the main Church, and their members were excommunicated from The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Despite this, many of these fundamentalist communities continue to exist today, adhering to the historical practice of plural marriage.
The Current Stance of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
Today, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints actively distances itself from these fundamentalist groups and strictly prohibits the practice of polygamy among its members. Any member found engaging in or promoting plural marriage faces excommunication. Despite this clear modern stance, the original revelation on plural marriage still appears in Section 132 of the Doctrine and Covenants, which is considered canonized scripture within the Church.
Conclusion
The history of Mormon polygamy is a testament to religious conviction, societal conflict, and profound adaptation. From its veiled beginnings under Joseph Smith to its public embrace and subsequent legal battles under Brigham Young, plural marriage defined a significant era for the Latter-day Saints. The eventual cessation of the practice through the 1890 and 1904 Manifestos marked a critical turning point, allowing the Church to integrate more fully into American society and for Utah to achieve statehood. While the mainstream Church has long since abandoned the practice, its legacy endures in scripture and the continued existence of small fundamentalist communities, forever marking a unique chapter in American religious history.
