The American Civil War, a pivotal period in the nation’s history, profoundly impacted all who lived within its borders, including numerous Indigenous communities. The involvement of Native Americans in the Civil War was far more extensive and complex than often portrayed, with an estimated 20,000 Indigenous individuals fighting for both the Union and Confederate armies. These diverse tribes, driven by a myriad of motivations including the protection of ancestral lands and distinct lifeways, played crucial roles across various battlefronts and in support capacities, leaving an indelible mark on the conflict.
Complex Alliances and Motivations
During the Civil War, Native American allegiances were rarely straightforward, often reflecting generations of intricate relationships with the U.S. government and the encroaching settlers. While approximately 3,503 Native Americans officially served in the Union Army, many more allied with the Confederacy. Their choices were deeply rooted in self-preservation and the desperate hope that their chosen side would honor existing treaties, guarantee land rights, or even facilitate the creation of an independent Native American nation.
Many tribes, especially the Five Civilized Tribes (Cherokee, Chickasaw, Muscogee (Creek), Choctaw, and Seminole), had endured forced removal from their ancestral homelands in the Southeast during the 1830s and 1840s, an event infamously known as the Trail of Tears. This traumatic history fueled deep distrust of the U.S. federal government, making Confederate promises of recognition and protection of territories west of the Mississippi River particularly appealing. Furthermore, the practice of slavery among some elite tribal members, particularly within the Cherokee and Choctaw Nations, provided an additional economic incentive to align with the Southern cause.
The Divided Cherokee Nation and Confederate Service
The Cherokee Nation, numbering about 21,000 in 1861, found itself embroiled in its own internal strife even before the larger national conflict fully engulfed them. Led by Principal Chief John Ross, one faction initially sought neutrality, while another, led by Stand Watie, openly favored the Confederacy. Strategic realities, particularly the withdrawal of Federal troops from Indian Territory and the surrounding Confederate loyalties of other Native nations, ultimately compelled Ross to reassess his stance. The Confederate victories at First Manassas and Wilson’s Creek further highlighted their vulnerability.
On October 7, 1861, Chief Ross reluctantly signed a treaty with the Confederate States. This agreement promised the Cherokee protection, essential provisions, and a delegate to the Confederate Congress in Richmond. In return, the Cherokee pledged ten companies of mounted men and permitted Confederate military installations on their lands, with the crucial stipulation that their regiments would not be compelled to fight outside Indian Territory. This accord led to the formation of the 2nd Cherokee Mounted Rifles, under Colonel John Drew. Meanwhile, Stand Watie, commissioned as a colonel in the Confederate Army, commanded his own battalion of Cherokee troops.
Native Americans in the Union Cause
The Union also actively sought Native American recruits. In January 1862, U.S. Commissioner of Indian Affairs William Dole called upon agents to enlist “all the vigorous and able-bodied Indians in their respective agencies.” This initiative led to the formation of the 1st and 2nd Indian Home Guard in Kansas, comprising men from the Delaware, Creek, Seminole, Kickapoo, Seneca, Osage, Shawnee, Choctaw, and Chickasaw tribes. After the Battle of Pea Ridge in March 1862, Colonel John Drew’s Cherokee Mounted Rifles famously defected to the Union, joining the Indian Home Guard in Kansas.
Chief John Ross himself was captured by Federal troops in the summer of 1862. He was paroled and spent the remainder of the war in Washington D.C. and Philadelphia, advocating for Cherokee loyalty to the Union. With Ross absent, Stand Watie was elected Principal Chief of the Confederate Cherokee Nation and immediately conscripted all Cherokee males between 18 and 50 for Confederate service. Watie gained renown as a brilliant cavalry officer, excelling in guerilla warfare tactics.
Key Figures and Engagements
One of the most celebrated Native American military figures was Confederate Brigadier General Stand Watie. Promoted in May 1864, he commanded the Indian Cavalry Brigade, an impressive force composed of Cherokee, Creek, Osage, and Seminole warriors. Watie’s strategic genius was evident in significant engagements such as Pleasant Bluff, Oklahoma, where he captured the Union steamboat J.R. Williams, laden with supplies valued at $120,000. At the Second Battle of Cabin Creek in Indian Territory, his brigade inflicted heavy losses, capturing 129 supply wagons and 740 mules, taking 120 prisoners, and causing 200 Union casualties. Notably, General Watie was the last Confederate general to surrender, laying down his arms two months after General Robert E. Lee and a month after General E. Kirby Smith, marking the true conclusion of the war in the West.
On the Union side, other Native American units distinguished themselves. The Tonkawa Massacre, a significant Union victory in October 1862, saw Delaware, Shawnee, and Osage warriors attack the Wichita Agency in Oklahoma, killing Confederate agents and seizing valuable resources. In the East, various tribes also contributed. The Thomas Legion, an Eastern Band of Confederate Cherokee, fought in the mountains of Tennessee and North Carolina. The Catawba adult males served the South with distinction in the 5th, 12th, and 17th South Carolina Volunteer Infantry, participating in major campaigns like the Peninsula Campaign, Second Manassas, and Antietam.
Meanwhile, the Pamunkey and Lumbee tribes provided crucial support to the Union in Virginia and North Carolina, serving as civilian and naval pilots, and guerillas, respectively. Members of the Iroquois Nation joined the 5th Pennsylvania Volunteer Infantry, while Powhatan individuals acted as land guides and spies for the Army of the Potomac. The most famous Eastern Native American unit in the Union Army was Company K of the 1st Michigan Sharpshooters, comprised of Ottawa, Delaware, Huron, Oneida, Potawatomi, and Ojibwa men. Formed in 1863, they fought heroically at the Battle of the Wilderness, Spotsylvania, and captured 600 Confederate troops near Petersburg, Virginia. Their final, valiant stand at the Battle of the Crater saw them chant death songs as they faced overwhelming odds, a testament to their unwavering commitment.
Perhaps the most prominent Native American figure in the Union command was Ely S. Parker, a Seneca tribal member who rose to become General Ulysses S. Grant’s military secretary. Despite initially being rejected for army service due to his race, Parker’s intellect and legal training were invaluable. He famously drafted the articles of surrender signed by General Robert E. Lee at Appomattox Court House on April 9, 1865. Lee’s reputed remark to Parker, “I am glad to see one real American here,” and Parker’s dignified reply, “We are all Americans,” encapsulate the complex identity and sacrifice of Indigenous peoples during this era.
The Enduring Legacy and Broken Promises
The participation of Native Americans in the Civil War, though driven by a desire for self-determination and the protection of their homelands, ultimately came at a tremendous cost. The Cherokee Nation suffered immensely, with its population plummeting from 21,000 to 15,000 by 1865 due to violence, starvation, and disease. Despite Union promises of pardon for those who sided with the Confederacy, the entire Cherokee Nation was often deemed disloyal, leading to the revocation of their hard-won rights and further land encroachment.
Even as the war raged and African Americans were emancipated, the U.S. government continued its policies of pacification and removal against Native American tribes. The Civil War era saw an overlap with ongoing American Indian Wars, further complicating the struggle for Indigenous sovereignty. The hope that military service would lead to an end to discrimination and forced relocation proved largely unfounded. Instead, the period following the Civil War brought renewed pressures on tribal lands, demonstrating that the sacrifices made by Native Americans in the Civil War did not secure the recognition or autonomy they desperately sought.
Conclusion
The story of Native Americans in the Civil War is one of profound complexity, marked by divided loyalties, extraordinary bravery, and ultimately, a tragic betrayal of promises. From the strategic brilliance of Stand Watie to the diplomatic integrity of Ely S. Parker, Indigenous individuals and nations played critical, often overlooked, roles in shaping the conflict’s outcome. Their contributions underscore a critical chapter in American history, reminding us that the Civil War was not merely a struggle between North and South, but a multi-faceted conflict that dramatically impacted the trajectory of Indigenous peoples, whose fight for land, sovereignty, and recognition continued long after the last shots of the war were fired.
