The American Revolution profoundly impacted the numerous American Indian nations inhabiting the continent, shattering the myth of a unified indigenous stance. Far from being mere pawns, as famously depicted in the Declaration of Independence which accused King George III of unleashing ‘merciless Indian Savages,’ Native American tribes navigated a complex and often perilous political landscape during the conflict. For many American Indians, the war was not about British versus American ideals, but a desperate struggle to protect their ancestral homelands and secure their future against relentless colonial expansion.
Before the war, the British Royal Proclamation of 1763 had offered a semblance of protection for Indian lands by attempting to restrict colonial settlement beyond the Appalachian Mountains. This policy, while infuriating to American colonists and land speculators, was seen by many American Indian leaders as their best hope for preserving their territories and traditional way of life. Consequently, when the Revolutionary War erupted, various tribes made strategic decisions, some aligning with the British, others with the Americans, and many initially attempting to remain neutral, all driven by the overriding goal of self-preservation and sovereignty.
Early Conflicts and Divided Loyalties
The outbreak of the American Revolution immediately ignited conflicts on the frontier, with some Native American tribes taking up arms early. The Cherokee, for instance, had suffered significant land losses prior to the war, fueling a deep resentment towards encroaching American settlers. Younger Cherokee warriors, often defying older, more cautious chiefs who favored diplomacy, launched attacks on frontier settlements in Virginia, Georgia, and the Carolinas. However, these efforts were met with overwhelming force by colonial expeditions, leading to devastating defeats and further land cessions for the Cherokee Nation. Their early struggles underscored the immense challenges faced by tribes attempting to independently resist American expansion and highlighted the high stakes involved for American Indians.
In stark contrast, many New England Indians, particularly those from the mission town of Stockbridge in western Massachusetts, sided with their colonial neighbors. These Stockbridge Mohican and other allied peoples, having long-standing relationships with the colonists, volunteered as minutemen even before the official start of hostilities. They actively participated in crucial early engagements, joining George Washington’s forces at the Siege of Boston and later serving in campaigns across New York, New Jersey, and Canada. Their decision reflected a hope that alliance with the burgeoning American nation would secure their own place and rights, demonstrating the diverse perspectives among American Indian communities.
The Iroquois Confederacy: A Nation Divided
Perhaps no group exemplified the divisive nature of the American Revolution for Native Americans more than the powerful Iroquois Confederacy. A sophisticated alliance of six nations (Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca, and Tuscarora), the Confederacy had maintained a delicate balance of power and diplomacy for centuries. The Revolution, however, shattered this unity, transforming an external conflict into a devastating internal struggle. The Mohawk, under the charismatic leadership of Joseph Brant (Thayendanegea), maintained their strong, long-standing allegiance to the British Crown. Over time, most of the Cayuga, Onondaga, and Seneca nations joined them, seeing the British as a reliable ally against American land hunger and a guarantor of their traditional territories.
Conversely, the Oneida and Tuscarora nations chose to align with the Americans. This decision was significantly influenced by the efforts of their Presbyterian missionary, Samuel Kirkland, who fostered strong ties between these nations and the revolutionary cause. The conflict became a brutal civil war within the Confederacy, culminating in tragic clashes like the Battle of Oriskany in 1777, where Oneida warriors fought against their Seneca brethren. The sufferings of the Iroquois were further compounded in 1779 when American General John Sullivan led a devastating campaign through their country, deliberately destroying over 40 towns and vast agricultural fields in a scorched-earth tactic aimed at breaking their power and morale.
The Ohio Frontier: Neutrality Betrayed
West of the Appalachian Mountains, in the Ohio Country, several prominent American Indian leaders initially pursued a course of neutrality to protect their communities from the escalating conflict. Guyashuta of the Seneca, Cornstalk of the Shawnee, and White Eyes of the Delaware Nation worked tirelessly to steer their people away from war. At the Treaty of Fort Pitt in 1778, the Delaware and the Americans even pledged ‘perpetual peace and friendship,’ an agreement intended to secure a peaceful co-existence and prevent bloodshed on the frontier.
However, this hope was tragically short-lived. The Americans’ relentless westward expansion and their brutal treatment of Native Americans quickly eroded any trust. The murders of White Eyes and Cornstalk by American militiamen, combined with the horrific slaughter of noncombatant Moravian Delaware at the mission town of Gnadenhutten in Ohio, irrevocably turned many of these nations against the Americans. These atrocities galvanized American Indians in the Ohio Valley to make common cause with the British. They achieved significant victories in the western theater, continuing their resistance against American expansion for more than a decade after Cornwallis’s surrender in the East, demonstrating their unwavering determination to defend their lands and sovereignty.
The Treaty of Paris and its Aftermath
The conclusion of the American Revolution with the Treaty of Paris in 1783 brought a harsh reality for American Indians. Without any consultation or consideration for its loyal Indian allies, Britain unilaterally ceded all its territory east of the Mississippi River, south of the Great Lakes, and north of Florida to the newly formed United States. This act of diplomatic betrayal left Native American nations vulnerable and exposed, essentially handing over their lands to a nation whose expansionist ambitions were clear and immediate.
The United States wasted no time in continuing its westward expansion, acquiring vast tracts of Indian lands through a combination of coercive treaties and outright military force. Even those tribes who had allied with the Americans, such as the Stockbridge and Oneida, found themselves dispossessed of their territories, demonstrating the profound disregard for Native American sovereignty by the new nation. The Seneca and Shawnee, who had fought valiantly alongside the British, faced even greater pressure and land losses. The dominant narrative perpetuated by the Declaration of Independence, portraying Indians as ‘merciless savages’ who had sided with monarchy and tyranny, conveniently justified the subsequent policies of dispossession and forced removal. This narrative allowed a nation ‘conceived in liberty’ to feel little remorse about expanding at the expense of those who had fought for their own liberties and homelands.
Conclusion: A Legacy of Struggle and Resilience
The American Revolution was undeniably a pivotal moment for American Indian nations, reshaping their political landscapes and future trajectories. Far from a monolithic force aligned against American liberty, Native Americans fought for their own distinct ‘Indian liberties’ and the preservation of their cherished homelands. Their alliances, whether with the British or the Americans, were pragmatic decisions made to safeguard their existence amidst a transformative continental struggle. The war’s outcome, sealed by the betrayal of the Treaty of Paris, ushered in an era of relentless American expansion and severe hardship for indigenous peoples across the continent.
Despite the profound losses and the prevailing narrative that demonized their participation, the resilience and determination of Native American tribes in defending their sovereignty and cultural heritage endured. The legacy of the American Revolution: Indians‘ perspective reminds us of the complex, often tragic, and deeply human dimensions of a conflict typically viewed through a narrower lens. It underscores that for many indigenous nations, the fight for independence was not resolved in 1783 but continued for generations to come, a testament to their enduring spirit and resistance.
