Manuelito, a revered principal Navajo war chief, stands as a towering figure in Native American history, celebrated for his unyielding resistance against American expansion and his profound leadership during a tumultuous era. Born near Bears Ears Peak in southeastern Utah around 1818, Manuelito was a distinguished member of the Bít’aa’níí, or “Folded Arms People Clan.” His father, Cayetano, was a recognized leader known for his staunch opposition to foreign incursions, instilling in young Manuelito a spirit of defiance and resilience. Given the Spanish name Little Manuel, he was also known to non-Navajo as “Bullet Hole,” a testament to his bravery.
Manuelito later migrated to Arizona, where he joined Chief Narbona’s esteemed band and married his daughter. Narbona, a formidable leader himself, influenced Manuelito profoundly, teaching him the complex balance of war and diplomacy. Standing over six feet tall, Manuelito quickly demonstrated his prowess as a warrior, fighting his first significant battle at Narbona Pass in 1835. In this pivotal engagement, 1000 Mexican forces from New Mexico attacked the Navajo, but Manuelito and his people emerged victorious. This triumph earned him the honorific name Hashkeh Naabaah, meaning “Angry Warrior,” a title that resonated with his determined spirit.
A Fierce Leader in a Time of Conflict
In the decades that followed, Manuelito established himself as an exceptional military strategist and leader. He spearheaded numerous raiding parties, often collaborating with other influential Navajo leaders such as Ganado Mucho and Barboncito. Their targets included not only the Spanish and later Mexicans, but also rival tribes such as the Hopi in Arizona, the Puebloan peoples of New Mexico, the Ute, the Comanche, and the Apache. These raids were often retaliatory or aimed at sustaining his people amidst growing territorial pressures.
His efforts to protect his people also involved diplomacy, as evidenced by his participation in treaty negotiations. In November 1846, Manuelito was one of 14 Navajo chiefs who signed the Bear Springs Treaty, marking the first of nine treaties he would engage with throughout his life. However, these diplomatic efforts often failed to bring lasting peace, as conflicts between the Navajo, Mexican-Americans, and newly arriving white settlers continued unabated.
The Escalation of War and the Attack on Fort Defiance
By 1860, the conflict reached a critical point. Navajo lands were increasingly subjected to raids by the U.S. military, Mexican-Americans, and tribal adversaries like the Zuni and the Ute. In response to these escalating aggressions, Chiefs Manuelito and Barboncito led a formidable force of 1,000 Navajo warriors in a daring attack on Fort Defiance, Arizona, on August 30, 1860. The Navajo nearly overran the fort, demonstrating their fierce resolve, but were ultimately forced to retreat due to the superior firepower of the U.S. forces.
This bold assault prompted a decisive and devastating shift in U.S. Army policy towards the Navajo: a declaration of “total war.” Colonel Edward Canby and his troops launched a relentless campaign in early October, systematically killing Navajo warriors and civilians, destroying their livestock, and burning essential crops and orchards over several months. This scorched-earth tactic aimed to strip the Navajo of their means of survival.
The Long Walk and Resistance to Bosque Redondo
The campaign against the Navajo intensified in the fall of 1862 when Major General James H. Carleton arrived in the New Mexico Territory. Carleton devised a plan to decisively subdue the Navajo and forcibly relocate them to a desolate reservation known as the Bosque Redondo, near Fort Sumner, New Mexico. By 1863, thousands of Navajo, facing starvation and relentless military pressure, had surrendered at various military forts across New Mexico. The year 1864 marked the harrowing beginning of the “Long Walk,” a forced march that led countless Navajo to the confines of the Bosque Redondo Reservation.
Despite the overwhelming odds, Manuelito refused to capitulate. After meeting with officials at Fort Defiance, he, along with other defiant leaders, gathered numerous Navajo people and sought refuge in the remote, impregnable strongholds within the mountains of western New Mexico. From these hidden sanctuaries, they continued to wage a fierce guerrilla war, resisting the U.S. forces.
In 1863, U.S. forces under the notorious Kit Carson launched a full-scale campaign explicitly designed to crush the remaining Navajo resistance. Carson’s soldiers ruthlessly destroyed Navajo sustenance: killing livestock, poisoning wells, burning crops and orchards, and demolishing traditional Navajo dwellings. Following the devastating Battle of Canyon de Chelly in January 1864, Carson’s forces had rounded up approximately 8,000 Navajo, who were then forced to embark on the brutal Long Walk to Bosque Redondo in March.
However, Manuelito and roughly 4,000 of his people remained free, continuing their desperate fight from their mountain strongholds. Carson persisted in his destructive campaign, hunting wild game and horses and obliterating any remaining crops. By the autumn of 1866, starvation became an unbearable reality, compelling Manuelito and his exhausted people to finally surrender. They, too, were subjected to the arduous journey and harsh imprisonment at the Bosque Redondo.
Advocacy, Return Home, and Enduring Legacy
During the years of confinement at Bosque Redondo, Manuelito emerged not just as a war chief, but as an unwavering source of support and encouragement for his people. He dedicated much of his time to petitioning the U.S. government, advocating tirelessly for their return to their ancestral homeland. The conditions at the reservation were abysmal, marked by disease, scarcity, and despair. In the spring of 1868, due to his persistent efforts and those of other leaders, Manuelito was granted permission to travel to Washington, D.C., where he powerfully pleaded his cause for a new reservation.
His compelling arguments proved successful. By that autumn, the Navajo were finally allowed to relocate to a new reservation, critically located within the area that had been their cherished traditional homeland. Upon their return, Manuelito was selected to lead the tribal police, a role he fulfilled with dedication. In his later years, he became a fervent advocate for education, understanding its profound potential to improve the lives and future prospects of his people.
Manuelito is known to have had four wives during his lifetime, with Juanita being his last spouse. This legendary chief, a symbol of Navajo resistance and resilience, passed away in 1893 from measles complicated by pneumonia, leaving behind an indelible mark on his people’s history and the broader narrative of the American West.
