Among the indigenous tribes of the United States, the Zuni people held deep-seated beliefs in magic and Zuni witchcraft, a concept woven into the very fabric of their earliest traditions and creation myths. According to their oral history, two witches emerged from the underworld, bestowing upon humanity two crucial gifts: death, to prevent overpopulation, and corn, to sustain life. This complex understanding positioned Zuni witchcraft not as an external evil, but as an intrinsic force within the world, a part of the natural order that shaped their societal structure and understanding of cosmic balance.
Unlike many Western interpretations, the Zuni often did not strictly differentiate magical powers as inherently good or evil. Their magical skills served various purposes within the community. Witches were not seen as supernatural entities separate from humans; instead, they were believed to exist alongside ordinary people, possessing a unique physical and spiritual existence, described by the Tewa as being “of a different breath.” However, this distinction came with a grim requirement: witches were thought to sustain themselves by capturing or indoctrinating the souls of their victims, necessitating continuous acts of killing to prevent their own demise.
The Societal Role and Consequences of Zuni Witchcraft
Due to the belief that witches needed to kill to survive, Zuni witchcraft was frequently invoked to explain significant disasters and misfortunes. Droughts, devastating epidemic diseases, and destructive floods were all attributed to the malevolent influence of witches. Furthermore, any instance of disharmony within the community or deviation from proper social behavior could be equated with witchcraft. At one point in Zuni history, witchcraft stood as the sole recognized crime, underscoring its profound impact on their legal and social systems.
The process for identifying and punishing accused witches was highly structured. The Council of High Priests, revered for their wisdom, held the authority to determine who was a witch. The actual enforcement of these decisions, including executions, fell to the Bow Priests, a warrior society traditionally associated with warfare and the execution of justice. The Bow Priests were also responsible for interrogating the accused and evaluating evidence. Torture was a common method of extracting confessions; individuals found guilty were often hung by their wrists until they confessed to their sorcery. A confession, particularly if it revealed the source of their power, could sometimes lead to release or, at the very least, a reprieve from execution.
External Pressures and Enduring Beliefs
Despite attempts by external powers to alter Zuni cultural practices, the belief in witchcraft persisted. The Spanish, during their rule of the American Southwest, tried to suppress these indigenous beliefs among the Pueblo tribes, including the Zuni. However, their efforts were largely unsuccessful. Following the Pueblo Revolt, Spanish restrictions on native cultures relaxed, allowing the belief in witchcraft to continue largely unchecked. Later, with the United States acquiring New Mexico and other territories, Indian agents were dispatched to oversee Native American communities and encourage cultural assimilation. Their reports frequently documented instances of Zuni witchcraft accusations and severe punishments.
Historical records provide several harrowing accounts of these practices. In March 1855, it was reported that Indians of the Nambe Pueblo in New Mexico brutally killed three men and one woman from their village on charges of witchcraft. In 1880, an Indian agent witnessed a man being tortured, tied by his wrists behind his back and lifted off the ground, accused by the Zuni of bringing sickness and death. When the agent reported this incident to his superiors in Santa Fe, a council was convened. The Zuni firmly asserted their sovereignty, stating, “We have our government and laws, and what has happened is all right. We do not want you to interfere, but we want you to allow us the same privileges as you white people claim,” emphatically adding, “If you will tend to your own business, we will tend to ours.” This demonstrated their strong resistance to external interference in their cultural and legal systems.
Documented Cases of Persecution
Another tragic account details a Zuni man killing a woman from his own pueblo, convinced she was a witch responsible for the deaths of his children. The year 1889 saw a significant rise in witchcraft accusations fueled by a severe drought. Blame quickly fell upon an old man, who was subjected to the excruciating torture of being hung by his wrists. After confessing, he was released but, facing further threats, fled the pueblo and found refuge with a sympathetic Mexican family. The drought, however, continued, intensifying the witch hunt. In October of the same year, an old woman was similarly tortured until she confessed, implicating her 16-year-old nephew, a known thief. He endured repeated hangings, beatings to the head with sticks, and was left suspended for an entire night and day before succumbing to his injuries. A dozen Americans witnessed this brutal event, but attempts by one gentleman to intervene were met with resistance and the declaration, “none American’s business.”
An Indian Agent’s report from 1892 further illuminated the continuing severity of these practices:
“This evil still goes on. The victims are often those who depart from the old pueblo customs and are inclined to the ways of civilized life. In the estimation of the ruling Zuni, what we call progress is the most criminal of offenses and must be trodden out by the most summary and vindictive tortures. While this report was waiting for the printer, early in December, two Zuni Indians with whom I talked freely last July were seized and subjected to the witch torture methods. They were probably the most progressive of any people in the pueblo. Seized, violently seized, they were strung up by their wrists, beaten with war clubs, and kept hanging all night, all the next day, and until 10 o’clock the second night. They were let down occasionally for a few moments to induce confession but suffered indescribable torture. To end the suffering, they finally confessed that they were witches; and were let off when life was almost gone. Some perish in these tortures. I asked an intelligent gentleman, a resident in this pueblo for twelve years, ‘How often do these witch cases occur?’ He replied: ‘One nearly every year, either resulting in death or being run off from the pueblo, sometimes followed and killed—some years more than one. Half a dozen Americans have witnessed some cases. No Zuni Indian has been brought to justice and punished for these outrages, but now three men are arrested for the late offenses and in jail awaiting trial. They are undoubtedly not the guilty parties. The real offenders, men of influence in managing the affairs of the pueblo, turned over to the authorities these three poor men who were unable to help themselves and expect thus to clear their own skirts.’” This excerpt vividly portrays the dangerous intersection of traditional beliefs, perceived progress, and the tragic consequences for those caught in the web of accusation.
Epidemics also frequently fueled accusations of Zuni witchcraft. A smallpox outbreak in 1898-99 led to two young men being held responsible, only saved from execution by the intervention of an American schoolteacher who secured military protection for them. Tragically, some of the soldiers and their horses later died from poisoning, suggesting the deep-seated resentment and continued belief in retaliatory magic. Similarly, a measles epidemic in 1910-11 was also blamed on sorcery.
Conclusion: The Legacy of Zuni Witchcraft
Ultimately, the U.S. government took steps to halt the public torture and execution of accused witches by the Zuni, though it is understood that some convicted individuals continued to be killed in secret. The last public witch trials among the Zuni took place in 1925. However, despite the cessation of public official proceedings, the profound cultural belief in Zuni witchcraft and its associated dangers endured for many years, highlighting the resilience of deeply ingrained spiritual and social systems in the face of external pressures. The history of Zuni witchcraft is a powerful testament to the intricate relationship between belief, justice, and the profound impact of cultural traditions on a community’s understanding of life, death, and misfortune.
