The vast and often unforgiving American Plains presented unique challenges for transportation, leading to a remarkable evolution of methods developed by its inhabitants. From the earliest indigenous innovations to the sophisticated wagon trains of American traders, the story of Plains transportation is one of ingenuity, adaptation, and sheer perseverance. Understanding these methods is crucial to appreciating the dynamic history of trade, migration, and settlement that shaped the American West.
Early Indigenous Transportation Methods
Before the arrival of Europeans, the primary mode of moving goods across the Plains was quite literally upon men’s shoulders. However, the Native Americans of the Plains soon advanced, learning to utilize the strength and patience of dogs for carrying burdens. Castaneda, the historian of Coronado’s expedition in 1541, observed these ‘dog trains’ in action, noting how the animals, harnessed with saddle-cloths and pack-saddles, carried loads for the nomadic tribes. One hundred years later, Spanish wanderer Benavides described massive caravans:
“I cannot refrain from mentioning something rather incredible and ridiculous: when these Indians go off to trade, the whole rancheros go with their women and children. They live in tents made of buffalo hide, very thin and tanned, and these tents they carry on pack trains of dogs harnessed with their pack saddles. The dogs are medium-sized, and it is customary to have 500 dogs in one pack train, one in front of another; and thus the people carry their merchandise laden, which they barter for cotton cloth and other things they need.”
The introduction of the horse, brought north from Mexico by Spanish conquerors, revolutionized indigenous transportation. Descendants of these Arabian steeds rapidly populated the Plains in wild bands, and by the time American adventurers reached the Missouri River, Plains tribes were well-supplied with horses. The horse quickly became an indispensable burden-bearer, though the initial method for loading them was rudimentary. Adopting the same principle used for dogs, two sticks were attached to the horse’s sides, dragging on the ground behind it. This device, known as a travois by the French, was universally employed from the Great Lakes to Texas, significantly enhancing the mobility and carrying capacity of the Plains tribes.
Spanish and Mexican Innovations in Pack Transportation
The next major advancement in Plains transportation came with the Spanish pack train. This method, imported from Europe, proved invaluable for the development of the American West. The skill of the muleteer became an esteemed art, enabling pack trains to reach even the most isolated regions. These trains traversed immense distances, moving considerable amounts of merchandise and coins. Early commercial routes in the Southwest often exceeded 1,500 miles, exemplified by Captain Bautista Anza’s journey from Sonora, Mexico, to San Francisco in 1774, or Coronado’s two-year expedition across the Plains supported by his supply train.
The economic impact was staggering; the old Vera Cruz Trail alone reportedly employed 70,000 mules annually, with commerce reaching $64 million. Mules were the primary means of transport, even for travelers who couldn’t ride directly, often using crude litters swung between two mules. Regular commercial routes flourished, extending from Mexico to the Spanish settlements along the Rocky Mountains, thus firmly establishing the pack train on the Plains.
The Carreta: An Early Wheeled Vehicle
By the early 17th century, wheeled vehicles began to appear, though their use on the Plains outside of New Mexico was rare. The carreta, a rudimentary ox-cart constructed without nails or iron, was one such example. Its heavy design, featuring two wheels made from three cottonwood log sections, necessitated ox power. These carts were so primitive that their creaking and groaning sounds were unforgettable to travelers. The first documented wheeled vehicles within what is now the United States were Zacatecas wagons, used by Juan de Onate in 1596 during his expedition to colonize New Mexico, demonstrating an early, albeit limited, presence of wheeled transport.
The Mexican Pack-Train (Ataio) and American Commerce
The first overland commerce established by Americans along the Santa Fe Trail initially relied entirely on pack trains until 1827, when wagons were introduced. However, the pack train method, particularly the Mexican atajo, continued to be vital. Henry Inman vividly described the intricate process:
“A pack mule was termed a mula de carga, and his equipment consisted of several parts; first, the saddle, or aparejo, a nearly square pad of leather stuffed with hay, which covered the animal’s back on both sides equally… Before the aparejo was adjusted to the mule, a zalea, or raw sheep skin, made soft by rubbing, was put on the animal’s back to prevent chafing, and over it, the saddle cloth, or xerga. On top of both was placed the aparejo, which was cinched by a wide grass bandage. This band was drawn as tightly as possible, to such an extent that the poor brute grunted and groaned under the painful operation, and when fastened, he seemed to be cut in two. This always appeared to be the acme of cruelty to the uninitiated, but it is the secret of successful packing; the firmer the saddle, the more comfortably the mule can travel, with less risk of being chafed or bruised.”
Each mule typically carried an average load of 300 pounds, expertly hoisted and secured by two packers in a process that often took less than five minutes. An *atajo* comprised 50 to 200 mules, covering 12-15 miles per day without stopping to prevent mules from lying down with their heavy loads. The muleteers were constantly busy, tightening ropes and readjusting shifting packs. Despite the demanding nature, the cost of this transportation was remarkably low, with muleteers earning only $5 a month plus rations of corn and beans. Each band of mules was led by a bell mare, ensuring the animals followed diligently.
The Advent of the Prairie Schooner
By 1824, wagons became increasingly common for prairie commerce. These vehicles, often manufactured in Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, could carry about one and a half tons and were typically pulled by eight mules or oxen. Later, larger wagons, sometimes requiring as many as 12 animals, earned the iconic name “prairie schooner.” The inaugural wagon caravan to cross the Plains in 1824 used horses, though oxen were introduced in 1829 and became a staple, alongside expensive Missouri-bred mules. Outfitting for these perilous journeys was a significant investment: a wagon cost $200, mules $100 each, harnesses $100 per wagon, plus additional costs for water kegs and other essentials. With at least ten mules per wagon, the initial cost per wagon could reach $1,300, meaning a safe train of 20 wagons required an investment of $26,000, not including extra mules, wagon master salaries ($100 per month), or wages for drivers, herders, and cooks. By the peak of the trade, as many as 200 wagons were simultaneously on the trail.
Challenges on the Trail: Government Hostility and Stampedes
The prosperity of this trade often coincided with open hostility from the Mexican Government. Traders frequently paused at the Cimarron River, sending scouts ahead to gauge the authorities’ mood in Santa Fe. Governor Manuel Armijo famously levied a $500 duty per wagon, irrespective of size or content. To circumvent this, traders would consolidate loads from three wagons into one near Santa Fe and burn the empty vehicles. To avoid export duties on coins, false axle trees were ingeniously used to conceal money.
Beyond governmental hurdles, the perils of a stampede were dreaded even more than Indian attacks, often leading to greater losses. Mules, despite their patient work ethic, were easily spooked by anything from a barking prairie dog to a distant figure or even a passing cloud’s shadow. A stampede would send the animals into a wild, entangled rush, frequently crushing drivers and mules to death or driving them over precipices. A notable incident in 1868 saw the stampede of mules from three army wagons, their remains discovered a decade later in a Kansas ravine.
The Dynamic Start of a Caravan
The daily departure of a great Plains caravan was a spectacle of organized chaos. Josiah Gregg’s description captures the vibrant scene:
“The uproarious bustle which follows, the hallooing of those in pursuit of animals, the exclamations which the unruly brutes call forth from their wrathful drivers, together with the clatter of bells, the rattle of yokes and harness, the jingle of chains, all conspire to produce an uproarious confusion. It is sometimes amusing to observe the athletic wagoner hurrying an animal to its post — to see him heave upon the halter of a stubborn mule. At the same time, the brute obstinately sets back, determined not to move a peg till his good pleasure thinks it proper to do so… ‘All’s set!’ is finally heard from some teamster — ‘All’s set!’ is directly responded from every quarter. ‘Stretch out!’ immediately vociferates the captain. Then the ‘heps,’ to the drivers, the cracking of whips, the trampling of feet, the occasional creak of wheels, the rumbling of the wagons, while ‘Fall in!’…”
Conclusion: The Enduring Legacy of Plains Transportation
The evolution of Plains transportation is a testament to human and animal endurance against the formidable backdrop of the American West. From the simple yet effective dog travois and the profound impact of the introduced horse, to the sophisticated Spanish pack trains and the iconic American prairie schooners, each method played a critical role in connecting disparate communities, facilitating trade, and enabling vast migrations. These challenging journeys, fraught with natural dangers and political obstacles, forged the pathways that would eventually lead to the settlement and development of an entire continent. The stories of these early transport methods are not just historical footnotes; they are narratives of innovation, risk, and the unyielding spirit of those who ventured across the expansive plains.
