The Peninsula Campaign, an ambitious Union offensive during the American Civil War, unfolded between March and July 1862 with the ultimate goal of capturing the Confederate capital of Richmond, Virginia. This pivotal military operation, also known as the Peninsular Campaign, marked the first major push in the Eastern Theater and represented a critical test of Union leadership and strategy.
Conceived by Union Army Commander-in-Chief Major General George B. McClellan, the Peninsula Campaign aimed to circumvent the heavily fortified direct overland route to Richmond from northern Virginia. Instead, McClellan planned a daring amphibious movement, transporting his formidable Army of the Potomac by water to Fort Monroe, strategically located at the tip of the Virginia Peninsula. His vision was to advance rapidly up the narrow landmass between the York and James Rivers, seizing the Confederate capital with minimal casualties. Initially, McClellan found some success against the cautious Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston. However, the unexpected emergence of the more aggressive General Robert E. Lee and the subsequent Seven Days Battles would dramatically alter the campaign’s trajectory, transforming it into a humiliating Union defeat and inflicting significant casualties on both sides.
The Genesis of McClellan’s Grand Strategy
Major General George B. McClellan, a brilliant organizer but often criticized for his cautious approach, devised the Peninsula Campaign as a strategic masterpiece designed to avoid the frontal assaults that characterized so much of the Civil War. His plan involved transporting the Army of the Potomac by sea to the Virginia Peninsula, thereby bypassing Confederate defenses north of Richmond. This maneuver, while innovative, would prove to be fraught with challenges, including logistical complexities, the formidable terrain, and the evolving leadership of the Confederate forces.
Early Engagements and Obstacles
Battle of Hampton Roads (March 8-9, 1862)
Often referred to as the Battle of the Ironclads, this historic naval engagement occurred at Hampton Roads, Virginia, preceding the main land offensive. The Confederate ironclad Virginia (formerly USS Merrimack) wreaked havoc on Union wooden ships on March 8, sinking the USS Cumberland and grounding the USS Congress. The following day, the Union’s revolutionary ironclad, USS Monitor, arrived, leading to the first-ever clash between ironclad warships. The battle was a tactical draw, with both ships retiring. Though the Virginia eventually retired, the engagement demonstrated the dawn of a new era in naval warfare. Union casualties were heavy at 409, compared to 24 for the Confederates.
Siege of Yorktown (April 5-May 4, 1862)
McClellan’s advance up the Peninsula was stalled almost immediately by a relatively small Confederate force under Major General John B. Magruder. Magruder’s elaborate theatrics and deceptive maneuvers convinced McClellan that he faced a much larger, entrenched enemy. Rather than pressing the attack, McClellan opted for a prolonged siege, mirroring the tactics of the Napoleonic wars. He ordered the construction of extensive siege fortifications and brought up heavy artillery. This delay, lasting nearly a month, allowed Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston to reinforce Magruder’s lines significantly. A minor probing attack at Lee’s Mill on April 16 resulted in approximately 309 casualties but failed to break the Confederate line. McClellan’s attempts to coordinate with the Union Navy to outflank the Warwick Line were unsuccessful. On the night of May 3-4, as McClellan prepared for a massive bombardment, the Confederate army skillfully slipped away toward Williamsburg, having gained valuable time. Total casualties for this phase were an estimated 320.
Battle of Williamsburg (May 5, 1862)
The first pitched battle of the Peninsula Campaign occurred as Union forces, pursuing the retreating Confederates from Yorktown, encountered their rearguard near Williamsburg. Hooker’s division of nearly 41,000 Federals assaulted Fort Magruder, a key earthen fortification, but was repulsed. Confederate counterattacks, expertly led by Major General James Longstreet, threatened to overwhelm the Union left flank until the timely arrival of Kearny’s division stabilized the Federal position. Brigadier General Winfield Scott Hancock’s brigade successfully outflanked the Confederate left, occupying abandoned redoubts, but this localized success was not fully exploited by the cautious Union command. The Confederates continued their withdrawal under the cover of darkness. With over 72,000 troops engaged, the battle resulted in 3,843 casualties: 2,283 Union and 1,560 Confederate.
Battle of Eltham’s Landing (May 7, 1862)
Also known as the Battle of Barhamsville or West Point, this skirmish took place when Union Brigadier General William B. Franklin’s division landed at Eltham’s Landing on the York River. Their objective was to cut off the retreating Confederate army’s supply trains on the Barhamsville Road. However, they were met by two brigades of Major General Gustavus W. Smith’s command, who fiercely attacked the landing. The Confederates successfully protected their army’s withdrawal, preventing the Union from gaining a decisive advantage. Casualties were lighter here, with 194 Union and 48 Confederate losses, totaling 242.
Battle of Drewry’s Bluff (May 15, 1862)
Following the scuttling of the Confederate ironclad Virginia at Norfolk, the James River became open to Union gunboats. On May 15, a flotilla of five Union gunboats, including the ironclads Monitor and Galena, advanced up the James River to test Richmond’s defenses. They encountered formidable submerged obstacles and devastatingly accurate fire from Confederate batteries at Drewry’s Bluff. The Galena suffered severe damage, forcing the Federal Navy to turn back. This Confederate victory effectively blocked the water route to Richmond, demonstrating the strength of Confederate river defenses and preventing a direct naval assault on the capital. The engagement resulted in an estimated 41 total casualties.
Battle of Hanover Court House (May 27, 1862)
As McClellan’s army straddled the Chickahominy River, Brigadier General Fitz John Porter’s V Corps extended north to protect the Union right flank. Porter’s objective was to cut the railroad and open Telegraph Road for expected Union reinforcements under Major General Irvin McDowell, who was marching south from Fredericksburg. Confederate forces under Brigadier General Lawrence O’Bryan Branch attempted to prevent this maneuver but were defeated south of Hanover Court House after a fierce fight. Despite this Union victory, McDowell’s reinforcements were recalled to Fredericksburg due to the Confederate victory at First Winchester, making the Union success at Hanover Court House moot in the larger strategic context. The battle claimed 1,327 lives, with 397 Union and 930 Confederate casualties.
Battle of Seven Pines / Fair Oaks (May 31-June 1, 1862)
Also known as the Battle of Fair Oaks Station, this major engagement occurred when Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston launched an assault aimed at overwhelming two Federal corps that appeared isolated south of the Chickahominy River. On May 31, uncoordinated Confederate attacks nonetheless succeeded in pushing back the Union IV Corps, inflicting heavy casualties. As both sides committed more troops, the Federal position was eventually stabilized with the support of the III Corps and Sedgwick’s division of Sumner’s II Corps, which crossed the rain-swollen Grapevine Bridge. General Johnston was seriously wounded during the fighting, and command temporarily fell to Major General G.W. Smith. On June 1, renewed Confederate assaults made little headway against reinforced Union lines. Both sides claimed victory in this bloody encounter. Confederate Brigadier General Robert H. Hatton was killed. Of the approximately 84,000 men engaged, the Union suffered 5,738 casualties, and the Confederates, 7,997. This battle marked a turning point as General Robert E. Lee was appointed to command the Army of Northern Virginia following Johnston’s injury, a decision that would profoundly impact the rest of the campaign and the war.
The Seven Days Battles: Lee Takes the Offensive
With General Robert E. Lee now at the helm of the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia, the strategic initiative dramatically shifted. Lee, far more aggressive than his predecessor, immediately planned a series of offensive maneuvers to drive McClellan’s army away from Richmond. This led to the brutal series of engagements known as the Seven Days Battles.
Battle of Oak Grove (June 25, 1862)
The first of the Seven Days Battles, also known as French’s Field or King’s School House, began with a Union offensive. Major General George B. McClellan advanced his lines along the Williamsburg Road, attempting to bring Richmond within range of his siege guns. Union forces attacked across swampy terrain, resulting in inconclusive fighting. This probing attack, however, was not forceful enough to deter General Robert E. Lee, who had already set his own offensive plans in motion. Darkness halted the fighting, and the stage was set for Lee’s counterattack the following day. Casualties included 516 Federal soldiers and 541 Confederates.
Battle of Beaver Dam Creek (June 26, 1862)
Also referred to as Mechanicsville and Ellerson’s Mill, this second of the Seven Days Battles saw General Robert E. Lee launch his offensive against McClellan’s right flank, north of the Chickahominy River. Confederate General A.P. Hill’s division, reinforced by a brigade from D.H. Hill’s command, repeatedly assaulted Brigadier General Fitz John Porter’s V Corps, which was strongly entrenched behind Beaver Dam Creek. The Confederate attacks were costly and largely unsuccessful, repulsed with heavy casualties. Despite this tactical Union victory, the approach of Stonewall Jackson’s Shenandoah Valley divisions from the northwest forced Porter to withdraw during the night to a new defensive position behind Boatswain Creek, just beyond Gaines’ Mill. Approximately 32,000 troops were engaged, with Union losses around 400 and Confederate losses at 1,300.
Battle of Gaines’ Mill (June 27, 1862)
Also known as the First Battle of Cold Harbor, this engagement marked a significant Confederate victory and was the third of the Seven Days Battles. General Robert E. Lee relentlessly renewed his attacks against Brigadier General Fitz John Porter’s V Corps, which had established a robust defensive line behind Boatswain’s Swamp north of the Chickahominy River. Porter’s reinforced corps held firm throughout the afternoon, inflicting heavy casualties on the disjointed Confederate assaults. However, at dusk, the Confederates finally launched a coordinated, overwhelming assault that broke Porter’s line, driving his soldiers back towards the river. The Federals retreated across the Chickahominy during the night, abandoning their supply base. The decisive defeat at Gaines’ Mill profoundly impacted McClellan, convincing him to abandon his advance on Richmond and initiate a strategic retreat to the James River. This battle was crucial in saving Richmond for the Confederacy in 1862. Over 90,000 troops were involved, with casualties numbering 6,800 Union and 8,700 Confederate.
Battles of Garnett’s & Golding’s Farms (June 27-28, 1862)
While the fierce fighting raged north of the Chickahominy at Gaines’ Mill, Confederate Major General John B. Magruder conducted diversionary demonstrations against the Union lines south of the river at Garnett’s Farm. The Federal defenders from Major General Samuel P. Heintzelman’s III Corps were forced to refuse their line along the river to avoid being caught in an artillery crossfire. The Confederates attacked again near Golding’s Farm on the morning of June 28 but were easily repulsed. These
