The Appomattox Campaign stands as a pivotal series of engagements during the final days of the American Civil War, ultimately culminating in the surrender of General Robert E. Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia. From March 29 to April 9, 1865, this decisive campaign in Virginia marked the effective end of the long and bloody conflict, forever altering the course of American history.
By early 1865, the Confederate forces under General Robert E. Lee were in a desperate situation. Outnumbered and exhausted after a grueling winter of trench warfare around Petersburg, his soldiers faced severe shortages of food, supplies, and morale, leading to widespread disease and desertion. In stark contrast, Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grant’s Union Army was well-supplied, well-fed, and growing in strength, maintaining an unrelenting pressure on the Confederate lines.
Prelude to Collapse: Lee’s Dire Situation
Lee’s concerns extended beyond the immediate front at Petersburg. Two formidable Federal armies, commanded by Major General William T. Sherman and Major General John M. Schofield, were relentlessly advancing through the Carolinas. Their convergence with Grant’s forces at Petersburg threatened to completely isolate Virginia and crush Lee’s army between four Union forces instead of two. This dire strategic predicament prompted Lee to write to the Confederate Secretary of War on February 8, 1865, grimly stating, “You must not be surprised if calamity befalls us.”
It was clear to Lee that abandoning the Petersburg lines was inevitable; the only uncertainty was the timing. The severe muddy conditions of the roads and the emaciated state of his cavalry’s horses forced the Confederates to remain entrenched throughout March. Crucially, three of the four railroads supplying Petersburg had already been cut. The South Side Railroad remained the last vital artery. Its severing would force the Army of Northern Virginia to evacuate the Confederate capital, Richmond, and Petersburg.
Grant’s Decisive Offensive and the Evacuation
Seizing the initiative, General Grant launched a major offensive on March 29, 1865. This Union push relentlessly stretched and ultimately broke the Confederate defenses southwest of Petersburg, effectively cutting off their remaining supply lines to both Petersburg and Richmond. The pressure mounted rapidly.
On April 1, 1865, a significant blow was dealt to Confederate hopes at the Battle of Five Forks. Here, approximately 21,000 Federal troops decisively crushed the 11,000-man Confederate force under Major General George Pickett at a critical road junction. Following this crucial victory, Grant launched an all-out assault against the Confederate lines on April 2, securing a decisive win in the Third Battle of Petersburg. With his supply lines completely severed and his defenses shattered, General Lee had no choice but to issue orders for the immediate evacuation of Richmond and Petersburg on the night of April 2-3.
The Desperate March Westward
Confederate columns, following pre-determined routes, abandoned the trenches they had held for ten long months. Their immediate objective was to reach Amelia Court House, where forces from Richmond and Petersburg were meant to concentrate and receive much-needed rations from the capital. Lee’s strategic hope was to then march along the Richmond and Danville Railroad to link up with General Joseph E. Johnston’s Army of Tennessee, advancing from North Carolina. The combined forces could then establish a defensive line near the Roanoke River and potentially resume an offensive against Sherman.
Initially, the march from Richmond and Petersburg was met with a fleeting sense of exhilaration, as many Confederates, including Lee himself, felt invigorated to be moving again in the field. However, this optimism quickly faded. After only a day’s march, the harsh realities of weariness and severe hunger began to plague the troops. Upon reaching Amelia Court House on April 4, Lee discovered, to his profound dismay, that the anticipated rations had not arrived. Despite the critical need for a rapid advance, the starving men of the Army of Northern Virginia desperately required provisions. While awaiting the arrival of troops from Richmond, who were delayed by flood conditions, Lee made the fateful decision to halt the march and dispatch wagons into the surrounding countryside to gather food. This desperate effort proved largely futile, as local farmers had little to spare, and the wagons returned almost empty.
This agonizing delay at Amelia Court House cost Lee a crucial day of marching, providing the pursuing Federal armies with invaluable time to close the gap. This moment proved to be a critical turning point in the Appomattox Campaign.
The Relentless Union Pursuit and Sayler’s Creek
Departing Amelia Court House on April 5, Lee’s army had only traveled a few miles before encountering Union cavalry and infantry squarely blocking their intended line of march through Jetersville, towards Danville and Johnston’s Army. Rather than attack the entrenched Federal position, Lee was forced to alter his plan once more. He would now attempt to march his army further west, bypassing the Federals, hoping to resupply his troops at Farmville, along the South Side Railroad.
The retreat of the Army of Northern Virginia was under constant and brutal Federal pressure. Lee hoped to place the rain-swollen Appomattox River between his beleaguered army and the relentless Union troops. Aware of the strategic importance of the “High Bridge” near Farmville, Grant had dispatched a bridge-burning crew to destroy it before Lee’s army could cross. On April 6, Confederate Cavalry under Generals Fitzhugh Lee and Thomas Rosser intercepted this Federal raiding party. In a fierce engagement, they either destroyed or captured nearly the entire Union detachment. This short but intense fight for High Bridge tragically resulted in the last two combat deaths of general officers during the entire war.
However, the Union pursuit remained relentless. Federal cavalry soon attacked the Confederate wagon train at Painesville, destroying many vital wagons. Lee’s desperate decision to order night marches in an attempt to recover the lost day at Amelia further exhausted his already famished men. Soldiers began to fall out of the columns or break ranks in a desperate search for food. Starving mules and horses collapsed under their heavy loads, rendering much-needed supplies immobile.
As the retreating columns grew more ragged and disorganized, significant gaps began to appear in the line of march. At Sayler’s Creek, just a few miles east of Farmville, the Union cavalry exploited one of these critical gaps to trap two Confederate corps, commanded by Lieutenant Generals Richard Anderson and Richard Ewell. The much larger Union VI Corps soon arrived to overwhelm and crush them. Witnessing this devastating debacle from a nearby hill, a distraught Lee famously exclaimed, “My God! Has the army been dissolved?” In a single, catastrophic stroke, nearly 8,000 men and eight generals were lost—either killed, captured, or wounded. The remnants of the Army of Northern Virginia finally arrived in Farmville on April 7, where rations were awaiting them. Yet, the Union forces followed so swiftly that the Confederate cavalry had to make a desperate stand in the town’s streets to allow their comrades to escape, meaning most Confederates never received the much-needed provisions.
The Final Stand at Appomattox
Blocked once again by Grant’s army, Lee swung his army west again, clinging to the hope of being supplied further down the railroad line before turning south. He directed his forces onto the Richmond-Lynchburg Stage Road north of Farmville, with Union troops in close pursuit. Unbeknownst to Lee, however, Federal cavalry and the V, XXIV, and XXV Corps were simultaneously moving along shorter, parallel roads south of the Appomattox River, strategically positioning themselves to cut off his escape route.
While in Farmville on April 7, Grant dispatched a letter to Lee, formally requesting the surrender of his army. Lee received and read the letter in the vicinity of Cumberland Church. He then handed it to one of his most trusted corps commanders, Lieutenant General James Longstreet, who tersely replied, “Not yet.”
As Lee continued his westward march, he was fully aware of his army’s increasingly desperate situation. His last, faint hope was to reach Appomattox Station before the Federal troops, receive rations sent from Lynchburg, and then make his way to Danville via Campbell Court House in Rustburg and Pittsylvania County. If this final gambit failed, surrender would be his only recourse.
On the afternoon of April 8, the Confederate columns halted approximately a mile northeast of Appomattox Court House. That night, the ominous sound of artillery fire could be heard from Appomattox Station, and the red glow of Union campfires to the west clearly foretold that the end was tragically near. The Federal cavalry, along with the Army of the James, having marched on shorter roads, had effectively blocked Lee’s last avenues of escape to the south and west. Lee consulted with his generals and determined that one final attempt must be made to reach the railroad and break through the Union lines.
At dawn on April 9, General John B. Gordon’s Corps launched a desperate attack against the Union cavalry blocking the stage road. After an initial, fleeting success, Gordon sent word to Lee around 8:30 a.m., stating, “… my command has been fought to a frazzle, and unless Longstreet can unite in the movement or prevent these forces from coming upon my rear, I cannot go forward.” Upon receiving this grim message, Lee’s legendary resolve finally faltered. He replied, “There is nothing left for me to do but to go and see General Grant, and I would rather die a thousand deaths.”
The Surrender at Appomattox Court House
General Robert E. Lee formally surrendered the Army of Northern Virginia to Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grant on April 9, 1865, at the McLean House in Appomattox Court House, Virginia. This momentous event effectively brought an end to the American Civil War, though scattered fighting continued for a few more weeks. The terms of surrender, offered by Grant, were magnanimous, allowing Confederate officers to keep their sidearms and ensuring that soldiers could return home, provided they ceased fighting. This act of reconciliation set a precedent for healing a deeply divided nation.
The Appomattox Campaign, though brief, was a testament to the perseverance of both Union and Confederate soldiers, and ultimately, to the unwavering determination that finally reunited the United States. Its conclusion marked the dawn of a new era for America, one of reconstruction and national healing after four long years of conflict.
